Tuesday 28 July 2015

Jagdish Shukla

Jagdish Shukla (born 1944) is an Indian meteorologist and Distinguished University Professor at George Mason University in the United States.
Jagdish Shukla
Nationality Indian
Fields Meteorology
Notable awards Padma Shri Award(2012), Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal of the NASA

Early years

Shukla was born in 1944 in the village of Mirdha in the Ballia district of Uttar Pradesh, India. He passed from the S.R.S. High School, Sheopur, in the first class with distinction in Mathematics and Sanskrit. He studied science, firstly outside school, then at S.C. College, Ballia. At Banaras Hindu University, at the age of 18, he passed BS (honors) with Physics, Mathematics, and Geology (first class) followed by an MS in Geophysics in 1964 and PhD in Geophysics in 1971. He subsequently gained an ScD in Meteorology from MIT in 1976.

Professional activities

Shukla's contributions to the understanding of the predictability of weather and climate include the Asian monsoon dynamics, deforestation and desertification. He is the author or co-author of over 150 scientific papers.
He helped found weather and climate research centers in India and was the founding scientific leader at the National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) in New Delhi. He has also established research institutions in Brazil, Italy, and the USA.
He has been associated with the World Climate Research Programme since its inception and was involved in their Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere program (TOGA), the first coupled atmosphere-ocean initiative. Since 2001, he has been a member of its Joint Scientific Committee and chair of its Modelling Panel.
He founded and directed the Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Studies,[1] which aims to improve understanding of climate variability and predictability on intraseasonal to decadal time scales within a changing climate.
He is a Distinguished University Professor[2] at George Mason University, USA, and chair of the Climate Dynamics department.
He was a founder member of the weather and climate research group at the International Centre for Theoretical Physics in Trieste, Italy and led the group's activities until 1997.
He has established Gandhi College in his village for education of rural students especially women.[3]

Positions

He is a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society, a Fellow of the Indian Meteorological Society and an Associate Fellow of the Third World Academy of Sciences. He is currently a member of the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Program of the World Meteorological Organization and a Commissioner in the Virginia Governor's Commission on Climate Change.

Awards

References

  1. "A Pacific monster is threatening to gobble Indian monsoon". The Indian Express. 1997-06-27. Retrieved 2008-05-26.
  2. "Global Warming: The Known, The Unknown, and The Unknowable". Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations. 2006-10-06. Retrieved 2008-05-26.[dead link]
  3. Blackwell, Fritz (2004). India: A Global Studies Handbook. ABC-CLIO. p. 66. ISBN 1-57607-348-3. Retrieved 2008-05-26.
  4. "Indian wins UN’s top met prize". The Tribune. 2008-04-05. Retrieved 2008-05-26.
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Monday 27 July 2015

"Motherly" redirects here. For the 2009 Belgian film, see Motherly (film).
Sweet Dreams, by Belgian artist Firmin Baes
A mother and child
Mothers are women who inhabit or perform the role of bearing some relation to their children, who may or may not be their biological offspring. Thus, dependent on the context, women can be considered mothers by virtue of having given birth, by raising their child(ren), supplying their ovum for fertilization, or some combination thereof. Such conditions provide a way of delineating the concept of motherhood, or the state of being a mother. Women who meet the third and first categories usually fall under the terms 'birth mother' or 'biological mother', regardless of whether the individual in question goes on to parent their child. Accordingly, a woman who meets only the second condition may be considered an adoptive mother, and those who meet only the third a surrogacy mother.
The above concepts defining the role of mother are neither exhaustive nor universal, as any definition of 'mother' may differ based on how social, cultural, and religious roles are defined. The parallel conditions and terms for males: those who are (typically biologically) fathers do not, by definition, take up the role of fatherhood. It should also be noted that mother and fatherhood are not limited to those who are or have parented. Women who are pregnant may be referred to as expectant mothers or mothers-to-be, though such applications tend to be less readily applied to (biological) fathers or adoptive parents.[1][2]

Etymology

Mother with her child
The modern English word is from Middle English moder, from Old English mōdor, from Proto-Germanic *mōdēr (cf. East Frisian muur, Dutch moeder, German Mutter), from Proto-Indo-European *méh₂tēr (cf. Irish máthair, Tocharian A mācar, B mācer, Lithuanian mótė). Other cognates include Latin māter, Greek μήτηρ, Common Slavic *mati (thence Russian мать (mat’)), Persian مادر (madar), and Sanskrit मातृ (mātṛ).

Biological mother

Biological motherhood for humans, as in other mammals, occurs when a pregnant female gestates a fertilized ovum (the "egg"). Typically a fetus develops from the viable zygote, resulting in an embryo. Gestation occurs in the woman's uterus until the fetus (assuming it is carried to term) is sufficiently developed to be born. In humans, gestation is often around 9 months in duration, after which the woman experiences labor and gives birth. This is not always the case, however, as some babies are born prematurely, late, or in the case of stillbirth, do not survive gestation. Usually, once the baby is born, the mother produces milk via the lactation process. The mother's breast milk is the source of antibodies for the infant's immune system and commonly the sole source of nutrition for the first year or more of the child's life.[3][4][5]

Non-biological mother

Mother can often apply to a woman other than the biological parent, especially if she fulfills the main social role in raising the child. This is commonly either an adoptive mother or a stepmother (the biologically unrelated partner of a child's father). The term "othermother" or "other mother" is also used in some contexts for women who provide care for a child not biologically their own in addition to the child's primary mother.
Adoption, in various forms, has been practiced throughout history.[6] Modern systems of adoption, arising in the 20th century, tend to be governed by comprehensive statutes and regulations. In recent decades, international adoptions have become more and more common.
Adoption in the United States is common and relatively easy from a legal point of view (compared to other Western countries).[7] In 2001, with over 127,000 adoptions, the US accounted for nearly half of the total number of adoptions worldwide.[8]

Surrogate mother

Main article: Surrogacy
A surrogate mother is a woman who bears a child that came from another woman's fertilized ovum on behalf of a couple unable to give birth to children. Thus the surrogate mother carries and gives birth to a child that she is not the biological mother of. Surrogate motherhood became possible with advances in reproductive technologies, such as in vitro fertilization.
Not all women who become pregnant via in vitro fertilization are surrogate mothers. Surrogacy involves both a genetic mother, who provides the ovum, and a gestational (or surrogate) mother, who carries the child to term.

Motherhood in same-sex relationships

The possibility for lesbian and bisexual women in same-sex relationships (and/or women without a partner) to become mothers has increased over the past few decades[when?] due to technological developments. Modern lesbian parenting (a term that somewhat erases the bisexual case) originated with women who were in heterosexual relationships who later identified as lesbian or bisexual, as changing attitudes provided more acceptance for non-heterosexual relationships. Another way for such women to become mothers is through adopting and/or foster parenting. There is also the option of self-insemination and clinically assisted donor insemination, forms of artificial insemination. As fertility technology has advanced, more women not in a heterosexual relationship have become mothers through in vitro fertilization.[9][10]

Social role

See also: Sociology of motherhood
Sikkimese mother with child
Monumento a la Madre in Mexico City. The inscription translates as "To her who loves us before she meets us".
Historically, the role of women was confined to some extent to being a mother and wife, with women being expected to dedicate most of their energy to these roles, and to spend most of their time taking care of the home. In many cultures, women received significant help in performing these tasks from older female relatives, such as mothers in law or their own mothers.[11]
Mother and child in Cambodia
Mothers have historically fulfilled the primary role in raising children, but since the late 20th century, the role of the father in child care has been given greater prominence and social acceptance in some Western countries.[12][13] The 20th century also saw more and more women entering paid work.
The social role and experience of motherhood varies greatly depending upon location. Mothers are more likely than fathers to encourage assimilative and communion-enhancing patterns in their children.[14] Mothers are more likely than fathers to acknowledge their children's contributions in conversation.[15][16][17][18] The way mothers speak to their children ("motherese") is better suited to support very young children in their efforts to understand speech (in context of the reference English) than fathers.[15]
Since the 1970s, in vitro fertilization has made pregnancy possible at ages well beyond "natural" limits, generating ethical controversy and forcing significant changes in the social meaning of motherhood.[19][20] This is, however a position highly biased by Western world locality: outside the Western world, in-vitro fertilization has far less prominence, importance or currency compared to primary, basic healthcare, women's basic health, reducing infant mortality and the prevention of life-threatening diseases such as polio, typhus and malaria.
Traditionally, and still in most parts of the world today, a mother was expected to be a married woman, with birth outside of marriage carrying a strong social stigma. Historically, this stigma not only applied to the mother, but also to her child. This continues to be the case in many parts of the developing world today, but in many Western countries the situation has changed radically, with single motherhood being much more socially acceptable now. For more details on these subjects, see legitimacy (law) and single parent.
The total fertility rate (TFR), that is, the number of children born per woman, differs greatly from country to country. The TFR in 2013 was estimated to be highest in Niger (7.03 children born per woman) and lowest in Singapore (0.79 children/woman).[21]
In the United States, the TFR was estimated for 2013 at 2.06 births per woman.[21] In 2011, the average age at first birth was 25.6 and 40.7% of births were to unmarried women.[22]

Health and safety issues

Main article: Maternal mortality
Sub-Saharan African countries carry the highest risks in terms of maternal and infant mortality and health.
A maternal death is defined by WHO as "the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes".[23]
About 56% of maternal deaths occur in Sub-Saharan Africa and another 29% in South Asia.[24]
In 2006, the organization Save the Children has ranked the countries of the world, and found that Scandinavian countries are the safest places to give birth, whereas countries in sub-Saharan Africa are the least safe to give birth.[25] This study argues a mother in the bottom ten ranked countries is over 750 times more likely to die in pregnancy or childbirth, compared to a mother in the top ten ranked countries, and a mother in the bottom ten ranked countries is 28 times more likely to see her child die before reaching their first birthday.
The most recent data suggests that Italy, Sweden and Luxembourg are the safest countries in terms of maternal death and Afghanistan, Central African Republic and Malawi are the most dangerous.[26][27]
Childbirth is an inherently dangerous and risky procedure, subject to many complications. The "natural" mortality rate of childbirth—where nothing is done to avert maternal death—has been estimated as being 1500 deaths per 100,000 births.[28] Modern medicine has greatly alleviated the risk of childbirth. In modern Western countries the current maternal mortality rate is around 10 deaths per 100,000 births.[29]

Religious

The Hindu mother goddess Parvati feeding her son, the elephant-headed wisdom god Ganesha
Nearly all world religions define tasks or roles for mothers through either religious law or through the glorification of mothers who served in substantial religious events. There are many examples of religious law relating to mothers and women.
Major world religions which have specific religious law or scriptural canon regarding mothers include: Christianity,[30] Judaism,[31] and Islam.[32] Some examples of honoring motherhood include the Madonna or Blessed Virgin Mother Mary for Catholics, and the multiple positive references to active womanhood as a mother in the book of Proverbs.
Hindu's Mother Goddess and Demeter of ancient Greek pre-Christian belief are also mothers.

Mother-offspring violence

Main articles: Matricide and Filicide
History records many conflicts between mothers and their children. Some even resulted in murder, such as the conflict between Cleopatra III of Egypt and her son Ptolemy X.
In modern cultures, matricide (the killing of one's mother) and filicide ((the killing of one's son or daughter) have been studied but remain poorly understood. Psychosis and schizophrenia are common causes of both,[33][34] and young, indigent mothers with a history of domestic abuse are slightly more likely to commit filicide.[34][35] Mothers are more likely to commit filicide than fathers when the child is 8 years old or younger.[36] Matricide is most frequently committed by adult sons.[37]
In the United States in 2012, there were 130 matricides (0.4 per million people) and 383 filicides (1.2 per million), or 1.4 incidents per day.[38]

Mothers in art

Charity, by French painter William-Adolphe Bouguereau
Throughout history mothers with their children have often been the subject of artistic works, such as paintings, sculptures or writings.
Fourth century grave reliefs on the island of Rhodos depicted mothers with children.[39]
Paintings of mothers with their children have a long tradition in France. In the 18th century, these works embodied the Enlightenment's preoccupation with strong family bonds and the relation between mothers and children.[40]
At the end of the nineteenth century, Mary Cassatt was a painter well known for her portraits of mothers.
Many contemporary movies portray mothers.

Synonyms and translations

Amerindian woman with child in Peru
Main article: Mama and papa
A happy American mama holding her happy (part) Native American daughter. The father of this child is part Choctaw and Chickasaw Indian. The mother has an ancestry that stems from Europe.
The proverbial "first word" of an infant often sounds like "ma" or "mama". This strong association of that sound with "mother" has persisted in nearly every language on earth, countering the natural localization of language.
Familiar or colloquial terms for mother in English are:
In many other languages, similar pronunciations apply:

Famous motherhood figures

See also

References

  1. "definition of mother from Oxford Dictionaries Online". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press.
  2. "Define Mother at Dictionary.com". Dictionary.com.
  3. "Dhushara.com". Dhushara.com. Retrieved 2011-10-27.
  4. [1][dead link]
  5. [2][dead link]
  6. [3][dead link]
  7. Jardine, Cassandra (31 Oct 2007). "Why adoption is so easy in America". Telegraph.
  8. "Child Adoption : Trends and Policies" (PDF). Un.org. Retrieved 2015-07-01.
  9. "Lesbian parenting: issues, strengths and challenges". Retrieved 2011-01-25.
  10. Mezey, Nancy J (2008). New Choices, New Families: How Lesbians Decide about Motherhood. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-9000-0.
  11. "The Changing Role of Women in North American Mammology" (PDF). Biology.unm.edu. Retrieved 2015-07-01.
  12. [4][dead link]<
  13. "ucgstp.org". Ucgstp.org. Retrieved
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Sunday 26 July 2015

Jagadish Chandra Bose



Jagadish Chandra Bose
জগদীশ চন্দ্র বসু
CSI, CIE, FRS
Jagadish Chandra Bose 1926.jpg
Bose lecturing on the "nervous system" of plants at the Sorbonne in Paris in 1926
Born 30 November 1858
Mymensingh, Bengal Presidency, British India (now Bangladesh)
Died 23 November 1937 (aged 78)
Giridih, Bengal Presidency, British India (now Giridih, Jharkhand, India)
Residence Kolkata, Bengal Presidency, British India
Citizenship British Indian
Fields Physics, Biophysics, Biology, Botany, Archaeology, Bengali literature, Bengali science fiction
Institutions University of Calcutta
University of Cambridge
University of London
Alma mater University of Calcutta
Christ's College, Cambridge
Academic advisors John Strutt (Rayleigh)
Notable students Satyendra Nath Bose, Meghnad Saha
Known for Millimetre waves
Radio
Crescograph
Contributions to Plant biology
Notable awards Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire (CIE) (1903)
Companion of the Order of the Star of India (CSI) (1911)
Knight Bachelor (1917)
Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose,[1] CSI,[2] CIE,[3] FRS[4] (/boʊs/;[5] Bengali pronunciation: [dʒɔgod̪iʃ tʃɔnd̪ro bosu]; 30 November 1858 – 23 November 1937) was a Bengali polymath, physicist, biologist, botanist, archaeologist, as well as an early writer of science fiction.[6] He pioneered the investigation of radio and microwave optics, made very significant contributions to plant science, and laid the foundations of experimental science in the Indian subcontinent.[7] IEEE named him one of the fathers of radio science.[8] He is also considered the father of Bengali science fiction. He also invented the crescograph. A crater on the moon has been named in his honour.[9]
Born in Mymensingh, Bengal Presidency during the British Raj,[10] Bose graduated from St. Xavier's College, Calcutta. He then went to the University of London to study medicine, but could not pursue studies in medicine due to health problems. Instead, he conducted his research with the Nobel Laureate Lord Rayleigh at Cambridge and returned to India. He then joined the Presidency College of University of Calcutta as a Professor of Physics. There, despite racial discrimination and a lack of funding and equipment, Bose carried on his scientific research. He made remarkable progress in his research of remote wireless signalling and was the first to use semiconductor junctions to detect radio signals. However, instead of trying to gain commercial benefit from this invention, Bose made his inventions public in order to allow others to further develop his research.
Bose subsequently made a number of pioneering discoveries in plant physiology. He used his own invention, the crescograph, to measure plant response to various stimuli, and thereby scientifically proved parallelism between animal and plant tissues. Although Bose filed for a patent for one of his inventions due to peer pressure, his reluctance to any form of patenting was well known. To facilitate his research, he constructed automatic recorders capable of registering extremely slight movements; these instruments produced some striking results, such as Bose's demonstration of an apparent power of feeling in plants, exemplified by the quivering of injured plants. His books include Response in the Living and Non-Living (1902) and The Nervous Mechanism of Plants (1926).

Early life and education

Jagadish Chandra Bose in Royal Institution, London
Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose was born in Mymensingh, Bengal Presidency, (present day Bangladesh)[10] on 30 November 1858. His father, Bhagawan Chandra Bose, was a Brahmo and leader of the Brahmo Samaj and worked as a deputy magistrate/ assistant commissioner in Faridpur,[11] Bardhaman and other places.[12]
Bose's education started in a vernacular school, because his father believed that one must know one's own mother tongue before beginning English, and that one should know also one's own people. Speaking at the Bikrampur Conference in 1915, Bose said:
“At that time, sending children to English schools was an aristocratic status symbol. In the vernacular school, to which I was sent, the son of the Muslim attendant of my father sat on my right side, and the son of a fisherman sat on my left. They were my playmates. I listened spellbound to their stories of birds, animals and aquatic creatures. Perhaps these stories created in my mind a keen interest in investigating the workings of Nature. When I returned home from school accompanied by my school fellows, my mother welcomed and fed all of us without discrimination. Although she was an orthodox old-fashioned lady, she never considered herself guilty of impiety by treating these ‘untouchables’ as her own children. It was because of my childhood friendship with them that I could never feel that there were ‘creatures’ who might be labelled ‘low-caste’. I never realised that there existed a ‘problem’ common to the two communities, Hindus and Muslims.”[12]
Bose joined the Hare School in 1869 and then St. Xavier's School at Kolkata. In 1875, he passed the Entrance Examination (equivalent to school graduation) of University of Calcutta and was admitted to St. Xavier's College, Calcutta. At St. Xavier's, Bose came in contact with Jesuit Father Eugene Lafont, who played a significant role in developing his interest to natural science.[12][13] He received a bachelor's degree from University of Calcutta in 1879.[11]
Bose wanted to go to England to compete for the Indian Civil Service. However, his father, a civil servant himself, cancelled the plan. He wished his son to be a scholar, who would “rule nobody but himself.”[14] Bose went to England to study Medicine at the University of London. However, he had to quit because of ill health.[15] The odour in the dissection rooms is also said to have exacerbated his illness.[11]
Through the recommendation of Anandamohan Bose, his brother-in-law (sister's husband) and the first Indian wrangler, he secured admission in Christ's College, Cambridge to study Natural Science. He received the Natural Science Tripos from the University of Cambridge and a BSc from the University of London in 1884.[16] Among Bose's teachers at Cambridge were Lord Rayleigh, Michael Foster, James Dewar, Francis Darwin, Francis Balfour, and Sidney Vines. At the time when Bose was a student at Cambridge, Prafulla Chandra Roy was a student at Edinburgh. They met in London and became intimate friends.[11][12] Later he was married to Abala Bose, the renowned feminist, and social worker.[17]
On the second day of a two-day seminar held on the occasion of 150th anniversary of Jagadish Chandra Bose on 28–29 July at The Asiatic Society, Kolkata Professor Shibaji Raha, Director of the Bose Institute, Kolkata told in his valedictory address that he had personally checked the register of the Cambridge University to confirm the fact that in addition to Tripos he received an MA as well from it in 1884.

Joining Presidency College

Photo of Jagadish Bose and his wife Abala Bose, at the home of Edwin Herbert Lewis in Chicago; from the September 1915 issue of The Hindusthanee Student.
Bose returned to India in 1885, carrying a letter from Fawcett, the economist to Lord Ripon, Viceroy of India. On Lord Ripon's request, Sir Alfred Croft, the Director of Public Instruction, appointed Bose officiating professor of physics in Presidency College. The principal, C. H. Tawney, protested against the appointment but had to accept it.[18]
Bose was not provided with facilities for research. On the contrary, he was a 'victim of racialism' with regard to his salary.[18] In those days, an Indian professor was paid Rs. 200 per month, while his European counterpart received Rs. 300 per month. Since Bose was officiating, he was offered a salary of only Rs. 100 per month.[19] As a form of protest, Bose refused to accept the salary cheque and continued his teaching assignment for three years without accepting any salary.[18][20] After time, the Director of Public Instruction and the Principal of the Presidency College relented, and Bose's appointment was made permanent with retrospective effect. He was given the full salary for the previous three years in a lump sum.[11]
Presidency College lacked a proper laboratory. Bose had to conduct his research in a small 24-square-foot (2.2 m2) room.[11] He devised equipment for the research with the help of one untrained tinsmith.[18] Sister Nivedita wrote, "I was horrified to find the way in which a great worker could be subjected to continuous annoyance and petty difficulties ... The college routine was made as arduous as possible for him, so that he could not have the time he needed for investigation." After his daily grind, he carried out his research far into the night, in a small room in his college.[18]
Moreover, the policy of the British government for its colonies was not conducive to attempts at original research. Bose spent his own money for making experimental equipment. Within a decade of his joining Presidency College, he emerged a pioneer in the incipient research field of wireless waves.[18]

Radio research

See also: Invention of radio
Bose's 60 GHz microwave apparatus at the Bose Institute, Kolkata, India. His receiver (left) used a galena crystal detector inside a horn antenna and galvanometer to detect microwaves. Bose invented the crystal radio detector, waveguide, horn antenna, and other apparatus used at microwave frequencies.
The Scottish theoretical physicist James Clerk Maxwell mathematically predicted the existence of electromagnetic radiation of diverse wavelengths, but he died in 1879 before his prediction was experimentally verified. Between 1886 and 1888 German physicist Heinrich Hertz published the results of his experiments that showed the existence of electromagnetic waves in free space. Subsequently, British physicist Oliver Lodge, who had also been researching electromagnetic, conducted a commemorative lecture in August 1894 (after Hertz's death) on the quasi optical nature of "Hertzian waves" (radio waves) and demonstrated their similarity to light and vision including reflection and transmission at distances up to 50 meters. Lodge's work was published it in book form and caught the attention of scientists in different countries including Bose in India.[21]
The first remarkable aspect of Bose's follow up microwave research was that he reduced the waves to the millimetre level (about 5 mm wavelength). He realised the disadvantages of long waves for studying their light-like properties.[21]
During a November 1894 (or 1895[21]) public demonstration at Town Hall of Kolkata, Bose ignited gunpowder and rang a bell at a distance using millimetre range wavelength microwaves.[20] Lieutenant Governor Sir William Mackenzie witnessed Bose's demonstration in the Kolkata Town Hall. Bose wrote in a Bengali essay, Adrisya Alok (Invisible Light), "The invisible light can easily pass through brick walls, buildings etc. Therefore, messages can be transmitted by means of it without the mediation of wires."[21]
Bose's first scientific paper, "On polarisation of electric rays by double-refracting crystals" was communicated to the Asiatic Society of Bengal in May 1895, within a year of Lodge's paper. His second paper was communicated to the Royal Society of London by Lord Rayleigh in October 1895. In December 1895, the London journal the Electrician (Vol. 36) published Bose's paper, "On a new electro-polariscope". At that time, the word 'coherer', coined by Lodge, was used in the English-speaking world for Hertzian wave receivers or detectors. The Electrician readily commented on Bose's coherer. (December 1895). The Englishman (18 January 1896) quoted from the Electrician and commented as follows:
”Should Professor Bose succeed in perfecting and patenting his ‘Coherer’, we may in time see the whole system of coast lighting throughout the navigable world revolutionised by a Bengali scientist working single handed in our Presidency College Laboratory.”
Bose planned to "perfect his coherer" but never thought of patenting it.[21]
Diagram of microwave receiver and transmitter apparatus, from Bose's 1897 paper.
Bose went to London on a lecture tour in 1896 and met Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi, who had been developing a radio wave wireless telegraphy system for over a year and was trying to market it to the British post service. In an interview, Bose expressed disinterest in commercial telegraphy and suggested others use his research work. In 1899, Bose announced the development of a "iron-mercury-iron coherer with telephone detector" in a paper presented at the Royal Society, London.[22]

Place in radio development

Bose conducted his experiments during the years that saw the development of radio into a communication medium. Bose work in radio microwave optics was not related to radio communication[23] but his refinements and writings may have had an influence on other radio inventors.[24][25][26] During this same period from late 1894 on Guglielmo Marconi was working on a radio system specifically designed for wireless telegraphy and by early 1896 was transmitting radio far beyond the short ranges that had been predicted by physics.[27] In May 1895 Russian physicist Alexander Stepanovich Popov, also inspired by Lodges experiment, built a radio wave base lightning detector but did not pursue signalling until later.[25]
Bose was the first to use a semiconductor junction to detect radio waves, and he invented various now commonplace microwave components.[25] In 1954, Pearson and Brattain gave priority to Bose for the use of a semi-conducting crystal as a detector of radio waves.[25] Further work at millimetre wavelengths was almost non-existent for nearly 50 years. In 1897, Bose described to the Royal Institution in London his research carried out in Kolkata at millimetre wavelengths. He used waveguides, horn antennas, dielectric lenses, various polarisers and even semiconductors at frequencies as high as 60 GHz;[25] much of his original equipment is still in existence, now at the Bose Institute in Kolkata. A 1.3 mm multi-beam receiver now in use on the NRAO 12 Metre Telescope, Arizona, US, incorporates concepts from his original 1897 papers.[25]
Sir Nevill Mott, Nobel Laureate in 1977 for his own contributions to solid-state electronics, remarked that "J.C. Bose was at least 60 years ahead of his time. In fact, he had anticipated the existence of P-type and N-type semiconductors."[25]

Plant research

Jagadish Chandra Bose
His major contribution in the field of biophysics was the demonstration of the electrical nature of the conduction of various stimuli (e.g., wounds, chemical agents) in plants, which were earlier thought to be of a chemical nature. These claims were later proven experimentally.[28] He was also the first to study the action of microwaves in plant tissues and corresponding changes in the cell membrane potential. He researched the mechanism of the seasonal effect on plants, the effect of chemical inhibitors on plant stimuli and the effect of temperature. From the analysis of the variation of the cell membrane potential of plants under different circumstances, he hypothesised that plants can "feel pain, understand affection etc."

Study of metal fatigue and cell response

Bose performed a comparative study of the fatigue response of various metals and organic tissue in plants. He subjected metals to a combination of mechanical, thermal, chemical, and electrical stimuli and noted the similarities between metals and cells. Bose's experiments demonstrated a cyclical fatigue response in both stimulated cells and metals, as well as a distinctive cyclical fatigue and recovery response across multiple types of stimuli in both living cells and metals.
Bose documented a characteristic electrical response curve of plant cells to electrical stimulus, as well as the decrease and eventual absence of this response in plants treated with anaesthetics or poison. The response was also absent in zinc treated with oxalic acid. He noted a similarity in reduction of elasticity between cooled metal wires and organic cells, as well as an impact on the recovery cycle period of the metal.[29][30]

Science fiction

In 1896, Bose wrote Niruddesher Kahini (The Story of the Missing One), a short story that was later expanded and added to Abyakta (অব্যক্ত) collection in 1921 with the new title Palatak Tuphan (Runaway Cyclone). It was one of the first works of Bengali science fiction.[31][32] It has been translated into English by Bodhisattva Chattopadhyay.[33]

Bose and patents

The inventor of "Wireless Telecommunications", Bose was not interested in patenting his invention. In his Friday Evening Discourse at the Royal Institution, London, he made public his construction of the coherer. Thus The Electric Engineer expressed "surprise that no secret was at any time made as to its construction, so that it has been open to all the world to adopt it for practical and possibly moneymaking purposes."[11] Bose declined an offer from a wireless apparatus manufacturer for signing a remunerative agreement. Bose also recorded his attitude towards patents in his inaugural lecture at the foundation of the Bose Institute on 30 November 1917.[citation needed]

Legacy

Acharya Bhavan, the residence of J C Bose built in 1902, has been turned to museum.[34]
Bose's place in history has now been re-evaluated, and he is credited with the invention of the first wireless detection device and the discovery of millimetre length electromagnetic waves and considered a pioneer in the field of biophysics.[22]
Many of his instruments are still on display and remain largely usable now, over 100 years later. They include various antennas, polarisers, and waveguides, which remain in use in modern forms today.
To commemorate his birth centenary in 1958, the JBNSTS scholarship programme was started in West Bengal. In the same year, India issued a postage stamp bearing his portrait.[35]
On 14 September 2012, Bose's experimental work in millimetre-band radio was recognised as an IEEE Milestone in Electrical and Computer Engineering, the first such recognition of a discovery in India.[36]

Publications

Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Bust of Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose which is placed in the garden of Birla Industrial & Technological Museum.
Journals
  • Nature published about 27 papers.
  • Bose J.C. (1902). "On Elektromotive Wave accompanying Mechanical Disturbance in Metals in Contact with Electrolyte". Proc. Roy. Soc. 70 (459–466): 273–294. doi:10.1098/rspl.1902.0029.
  • Bose J.C. (1902). "Sur la response electrique de la matiere vivante et animee soumise ä une excitation.—Deux proceeds d'observation de la reponse de la matiere vivante". Journal de Physique 4 (1): 481–491.
Books
Other
  • J.C. Bose, Collected Physical Papers. New York, N.Y.: Longmans, Green and Co., 1927
  • Abyakta (Bengali), 1922

Honours

Notes

  1. Page 3597 of Issue 30022. The London Gazette. (17 April 1917). Retrieved 1 September 2010.
  2. Page 9359 of Issue 28559. The London Gazette. (8 December 1911). Retrieved 1 September 2010.
  3. Page 4 of Issue 27511. The London Gazette. (30 December 1902). Retrieved 1 September 2010.
  4. Saha, M. N. (1940). "Sir Jagadis Chunder Bose. 1858–1937". Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society 3 (8): 2–0. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1940.0001.
  5. "Bose". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
  6. A versatile genius, Frontline 21 (24), 2004.
  7. Chatterjee, Santimay and Chatterjee, Enakshi, Satyendranath Bose, 2002 reprint, p. 5, National Book Trust, ISBN 81-237-0492-5
  8. Sen, A. K. (1997). "Sir J.C. Bose and radio science". Microwave Symposium Digest 2 (8–13): 557–560. doi:10.1109/MWSYM.1997.602854. ISBN 0-7803-3814-6.
  9. Bose (crater)
  10. Editorial Board (2013). Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose. Edinburgh, Scotland: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. ISBN 9781593392925.
  11. Mahanti, Subodh. "Acharya Jagadis Chandra Bose". Biographies of Scientists. Vigyan Prasar, Department of Science and Technology, Government of India. Retrieved 12 March 2007.
  12. Mukherji, pp. 3–10.
  13. Murshed, Md Mahbub. "Bose, (Sir) Jagadish Chandra". Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Retrieved 12 March 2007.
  14. "Pursuit and Promotion of Science : The Indian Experience" (PDF). Indian National Science Academy. Retrieved 1 October 2013.
  15. "Jagadish Chandra Bose". People. Calcuttaweb.com. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
  16. "Bose, Jagadis Chandra (BS881JC)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
  17. Sengupta, Subodh Chandra and Bose, Anjali (editors), 1976/1998, Sansad Bangali Charitabhidhan (Biographical dictionary) Vol I, (Bengali), p23, ISBN 81-85626-65-0
  18. Mukherji, pp. 11–13
  19. Gangopadhyay, Sunil, Protham Alo, 2002 edition, p. 377, Ananda Publishers Pvt. Ltd.. ISBN 81-7215-362-7
  20. "Jagadish Chandra Bose" (PDF). Pursuit and Promotion of Science: The Indian Experience (Chapter 2). Indian National Science Academy. 2001. pp. 22–25. Retrieved 12 March 2007.
  21. Mukherji, pp. 14–25
  22. Bondyopadhyay, P.K. (January 1998). "Sir J. C. Bose's Diode Detector Received Marconi's First Transatlantic Wireless Signal of December 1901 (The "Italian Navy Coherer" Scandal Revisited)". Proceedings of the IEEE 86 (1): 259–285. doi:10.1109/5.658778.
  23. Sungook Hong, Wireless: From Marconi's Black-box to the Audion, MIT Press – 2001, page 199
  24. Sungook Hong, Wireless: From Marconi's Black-box to the Audion, MIT Press – 2001, page 22
  25. Emerson, D. T. (1997). "The work of Jagadis Chandra Bose: 100 years of MM-wave research". IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Research 45 (12): 2267–2273. Bibcode:1997imsd.conf..553E. doi:10.1109/MWSYM.1997.602853. ISBN 9780986488511. reprinted in Igor Grigorov, Ed., Antentop, Vol. 2, No.3, pp. 87–96.
  26. Jagadish Chandra Bose: The Real Inventor of Marconi’s Wireless Receiver; Varun Aggarwal, NSIT, Delhi, India
  27. Sungook Hong, Wireless: From Marconi's Black-box to the Audion, MIT Press – 2001, page 21
  28. Wildon, D. C.; Thain, J. F.; Minchin, P. E. H.; Gubb, I. R.; Reilly, A. J.; Skipper, Y. D.; Doherty, H. M.; O'Donnell, P. J.; Bowles, D. J. (1992). "Electrical signalling and systemic proteinase inhibitor induction in the wounded plant". Nature 360 (6399): 62–5. Bibcode:1992Natur.360...62W. doi:10.1038/360062a0.
  29. Response in the Living and Non-Living by Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose – Project Gutenberg. Gutenberg.org (3 August 2006). Retrieved 7 July 2012.
  30. Jagadis Bose (2009). Response in the Living and Non-Living. Plasticine. ISBN 978-0-9802976-9-0.
  31. "Bengal". The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. Retrieved 5 September 2014.
  32. "Symposium at Christ's College to celebrate a genius". University of Cambridge. 27 November 2008. Retrieved 26 January 2009.[dead link]
  33. Jagadish Chandra Bose. "Runaway Cyclone". Bodhisattva Chattopadhyay. Strange Horizons. Retrieved 5 September 2014.
  34. Acharya Bhavan Opens Its Doors to Visitors. The Times of India. 3 July 2011.
  35. "J C Bose: The Scientist Who Proved That Plants Too Can Feel". Phila Mirror: The Indian Philately Journal. 30 November 2010. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
  36. "First IEEE Milestones in India: The work of J.C. Bose and C.V. Raman to be recognized". the Institute. 7 September 2012. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  37. "A new name now for grand old Indian Botanical Gardens". The Hindu. 26 June 2009. Retrieved 26 June 2009.

References

Mukherji, Visvapriya, Jagadish Chandra Bose, second edition, 1994, Builders of Modern India series, Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India,
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